Supramolecular porphyrin cages assembled at molecular-materials interfaces for electrocatalytic CO reduction

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides for a composition comprising a heterostructure capable of electrochemical CO reduction to a carbon-carbon product, comprising an inorganic material and a porous molecule.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/551,633, filed Aug. 29, 2017.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT

The invention described and claimed herein was made in part utilizing funds supplied by the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-ACO2-05CH11231 between the U.S. Department of Energy and The Regents of the University of California for the management and operation of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The government has certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to the field of carbon monoxide (CO) reduction and supramolecular cages at molecular-materials interfaces.

Related Art

Climate change and rising global energy demands motivate broad interest in carbon fixation to value-added products with formation of carbon-carbon bonds.¹⁻⁶ In this context, carbon monoxide (CO) is a common one-carbon product of carbon dioxide (CO₂) reduction⁷⁻²⁷ and major feedstock for producing multicarbon products as illustrated by the classic Fischer-Tropsch process.^(28,29) Electrochemical CO reduction offers a complementary approach to C—C coupling reactivity with sustainable energy input,³⁰⁻³³ where reducing hydrogen equivalents can be provided directly by aqueous electrolytes and thus bypass the traditionally energy-intensive steam reforming process for H₂ production. Reports of electrochemical CO reduction are exceedingly rare relative to CO₂ reduction and have focused largely on copper, which can reduce CO to C2 products including ethanol, acetate, and ethylene; however, conventional Cu electrodes show poor selectivity for CO over proton reduction and low energetic efficiency.³³ Elegant work by Kanan et al. has utilized grain boundaries to improve CO over H⁺ selectivity on heterobimetallic cavities (e.g., NiFe or MoCu) with pendant electron reservoirs.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides for a composition comprising a heterostructure capable of electrochemical CO reduction to a carbon-carbon product, comprising an inorganic material and a porous molecule.

In some embodiments, the inorganic material is 2H, any metal, or halide thereof, or any compound described in Table 1 herein. In some embodiments, the porous molecule is an organic molecule, such as a porphyrin.

In some embodiments, the heterostructure comprises the following structure:

wherein (a) M is 2H or any metal, or halide thereof, or any inorganic material described in Table 1, and (b) n is any integer from (0 or 1) to 20.

In some embodiments, M is any transition metal. In some embodiments, M is Sc, Ti, V. Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Ac, Rf, Db, Sg, Bh, or Hs, or a halide thereof. In some embodiments, the halide is a fluoride, bromide or chloride.

In some embodiments, n is any integer from 0 (or 1) to 10. In some embodiments, n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9.

In some embodiments, the heterostructure is capable of electrochemical CO reduction to a carbon-carbon product with one or more of the following properties: a Faradaic efficiency equal to or greater than 40%, a current density of equal to greater than 1.34 mA/cm²), and a potential of −0.40 V vs RHE. In some embodiments, the heterostructure is capable of electrochemical CO reduction to a carbon-carbon product with a Faradaic efficiency equal to or greater than 40%, 50%, 60%, 60%, 70%, or 80%, or any value described herein. In some embodiments, the heterostructure is capable of electrochemical CO reduction to a carbon-carbon product with a current density of equal to greater than 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, or 1.3 mA/cm², or any value described herein.

The present invention also provides for any method or composition described herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing aspects and others will be readily appreciated by the skilled artisan from the following description of illustrative embodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1A shows a schematic illustration of traditional supramolecular assembly of cages between molecular components and supramolecular assembly of cages between molecular and materials components, as illustrated by formation of porphyrin cages on electrode surfaces.

FIG. 1B shows a synthetic procedures for the preparation of thiolate-containing porphyrins: (i) Propionic acid, reflux, 1 h; (ii) SnCl₂, 12N HCl, 65° C.; (iii) silica gel, benzene, 80° C., 20 h; (iv) n=1: bromoacetyl bromide; n=2: 3-bromopropionyl bromide; n=3: 4-chlorobutyryl chloride; n=4: 5-chlorovaleroyl chloride; (v) KSAc, THF, 4 h; (vi) MCl₂ (M=Fe, Zn, and Ni), 2,6-lutidine, THF; B. Structures of porphyrins used in this study.

FIG. 2A shows the functionalization of Cu surfaces with porphyrin cages. (i) NH₃ in methanol/chloroform, 25° C., 4 h, (ii) sodium borohydride, DMF, 25° C., 12 h.

FIG. 2B shows high resolution N 1 s. The scan rate is 10 mV/s.

FIG. 2C shows S 2p XPS spectra of 100 nm Cu on Si wafer functionalizated with porphyrin cages. The scan rate is 10 mV/s.

FIG. 2D shows cyclic voltammetry curves of underpotential deposition of Pb on Cu (black), Cu tethered with alkene-terminated porphyrins (dashed blue), Cu tethered with thiol-terminated porphyrins (red). The scan rate is 10 mV/s.

FIG. 3A shows faradaic efficiencies of CO reduction into acetate under different potentials on Cu foil and Cu—H₂PC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq). The electrolysis was performed at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE.

FIG. 3B shows specific current densities of CO reduction into acetate under different potentials on Cu foil and Cu—H₂PC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq). The electrolyses was performed at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE.

FIG. 3C shows faradaic efficiencies of CO reduction into ethanol under different potentials on Cu foil and Cu—H₂PC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq). The electrolyses wasperformed at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE.

FIG. 3D shows specific current densities of CO reduction into ethanol under different potentials on Cu foil and Cu—H₂PC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq). The electrolyses was performed at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE.

FIG. 3E shows faradaic efficiencies of CO reduction into ethylene under different potentials on Cu foil and Cu—H₂PC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq). The electrolyses wasperformed at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE.

FIG. 3F shows specific current densities of CO reduction into ethylene under different potentials on Cu foil and Cu—H₂PC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq). The electrolyses was performed at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE.

FIG. 4A shows free-base porphyrins possessing different linker lengths.

FIG. 4B shows Faradaic efficiencies for CO reduction on Cu foils functionalized with free-base porphyrins possessing different linker lengths (Cu—H₂PC_(n)SH). The electrolyses were performed at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq).

FIG. 5A shows specific Faradaic efficiencies of CO reduction on Cu—H₂PC₂SH in comparison with Cu foil and other control groups. 1. Cu+H₂PC₂SH, 2. Cu+C₁₂SH, 3. Cu+3-MMPA, 4. Cu+H₂PAA, 5. Cu+H₂-p-PC₂SH. The electrolysis was performed at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq).

FIG. 5B shows DFT calculation of a speculative ketene intermediate within the porphyrin cage formed on Cu(100) surfaces, which identifies a potential rationalization for differences in CO reduction selectivity for different cage sizes but does not rule out other plausible mechanistic possibilities.

FIG. 6A shows Faradaic efficiencies for CO reduction on Cu foils functionalized with metalloporphyrins containing different metal centers (Cu-MPC₂SH). The electrolysis was performed at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq).

FIG. 6B shows Faradaic efficiencies and current densities for CO reduction into ethanol under different potentials with Cu—H₂PC₂SH and Cu-FePC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq).

FIG. 6C shows Faradaic efficiencies of acetaldehyde reduction into ethanol on Cu foil, Cu—H₂PC₂SH and Cu-FePC₂SH in Ar-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq) with 10 mM acetaldehyde at a constant potential of −0.40 V vs RHE.

FIG. 6D shows Tafel plots of specific current densities of CO reduction into ethanol on Cu, Cu—H₂PC₂SH and Cu—FePC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq).

FIG. 6E shows specific Faradaic efficiencies CO reduction on electrodeposited Cu functionalized with iron porphyrins (FePC₂SH).

FIG. 6F shows specific current densities of CO reduction on electrodeposited Cu functionalized with iron porphyrins (FePC₂SH). The ethylene current density corresponds to the right y-axis.

FIG. 7A shows a high resolution Cu 2p XPS spectra of 100 nm Cu on Si with and without H₂PC₂SH functionalization.

FIG. 7B shows a comparison of spectra with normalized peak counts showing the presence of extended tail features at higher energies for porphyrin-functioned Cu relative to control.

FIG. 8 shows an external reflection FTIR spectrum of the Cu—FePC₂SH (on 100 nm Cu/Si) showing observable amide-bond bands.

FIG. 9 shows representative NMR spectrum for bulk electrolysis with H₂PC₂SH-capped Cu foil at −0.6 vs RHE in 0.1 M KOH saturated with CO. Formate was generated by chemical reaction of CO and OH⁻ without any electron transfer.

FIG. 10A shows controlled potential electrolysis curves of control Cu foils with and without NaBH₄ treatment (the identical porphyrin functionalization procedure but without porphyrin addition) at a potential of −0.55 V vs RHE in 0.1 M KOH saturated with CO.

FIG. 10B shows Faradaic efficiencies for CO reduction on control Cu foils with and without borohydride treatment.

FIG. 11 shows constant potential electrolysis curves of Cu—H₂PC₂SH, Cu-3-MPPA and Cu—Cl₁₂SH at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH.

FIG. 12A shows cyclic voltammetry curves of underpotential deposition of Pb on Cu—H₂PC₂SH electrode before (black) and after electrolysis at −0.55 V vs RHE for 1 h (blue) compared to the unfunctionalized Cu foil (dotted black and dotted red). The scan rate is 10 mV/s. Zoomed-in UPD region (dashed green box) shows a constant positive shift of 14 mV upon porphyrin functionalization for both before/after electrolysis.

FIG. 12B shows a high resolution N is XPS spectra of Cu foil functionalizated with porphyrin cages before and after electrolysis at −0.55 V vs RHE for 1 hour (dashed blue line shows the peak of metallic Cu⁰ and dashed green line shows the peak of oxidized Cu²⁺).

FIG. 12C shows a high resolution S 2p XPS spectra of Cu foil functionalizated with porphyrin cages before and after electrolysis at −0.55 V vs RHE for 1 hour (dashed blue line shows the peak of metallic Cu⁰ and dashed green line shows the peak of oxidized Cu²⁺).

FIG. 12D shows a high resolution Cu 2p XPS spectra of Cu foil functionalizated with porphyrin cages before and after electrolysis at −0.55 V vs RHE for 1 hour (dashed blue line shows the peak of metallic Cu⁰ and dashed green line shows the peak of oxidized Cu²⁺). e) high resolution Cu 2p XPS spectra of treated Cu foil before and after electrolysis at −0.55 V vs RHE for 1 hour.

FIG. 12E shows a high resolution Cu 2p XPS spectra of treated Cu foil before and after electrolysis at −0.55 V vs RHE for 1 hour.

FIG. 13A shows specific faradaic efficiencies and current densities of CO reduction into acetate under different potentials on Cu foil, Cu—H₂PC₂SH and Cu—FePC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH.

FIG. 13B shows specific faradaic efficiencies and current densities of CO reduction into ethanol under different potentials on Cu foil, Cu—H₂PC₂SH and Cu—FePC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH.

FIG. 13C shows specific faradaic efficiencies and current densities of CO reduction into ethylene under different potentials on Cu foil, Cu—H₂PC₂SH and Cu—FePC₂SH in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH.

FIG. 14A shows a long-term controlled potential electrolysis curve of Cu—FePC₂SH (based on Cu foil) at a constant potential of −0.55 V vs RHE in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH.

FIG. 14B shows Faradaic efficiencies for CO reduction on Cu—FePC₂SH (based on Cu foil) collected at different time points of long term measurement.

FIG. 15A shows Linear Sweep Voltammetry (LSV) curves of Cu and Cu—FePC₂SH in Ar-saturated 0.1 M KOH+10 mM acetaldehyde.

FIG. 15B shows LSV curves of FePC₂SAc on glassy carbon in Ar-saturated 0.1 M KOH+10 mM acetaldehyde under different stirring speed.

FIG. 15C shows the CPE curve of FePC₂SAc on glassy carbon in Ar-saturated 0.1 M KOH+10 mM acetaldehyde.

FIG. 16A shows Nyquist plots of Cu under Ar and CO atmosphere in 0.1 M KOH at a constant potential of −0.45 V vs RHE.

FIG. 16B Nyquist plots of Cu—FePC₂SH under Ar and CO atmosphere in 0.1 M KOH at a constant potential of −0.45 V vs RHE.

FIG. 17A shows the top view structure of Cu(100).

FIG. 17B shows the side view structure of Cu(100).

FIG. 18A shows the top view adsorption configurations of C═C═O on Cu(100).

FIG. 18B shows the side view adsorption configurations of C═C═O on Cu(100).

FIG. 19 shows the adsorption configuration of porphyrin on Cu(100).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the discussions that follow, various process steps may or may not be described using certain types of manufacturing equipment, along with certain process parameters. It is to be appreciated that other types of equipment can be used, with different process parameters employed, and that some of the steps may be performed in other manufacturing equipment without departing from the scope of this invention. Furthermore, different process parameters or manufacturing equipment could be substituted for those described herein without departing from the scope of the invention.

These and other details and advantages of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

Against this backdrop, we sought to synthesize electrocatalysts for CO reduction that could combine these key bioinorganic features yet allow for molecular-level tunability. We now report a supramolecular approach to CO electrocatalysis in which heterobimetallic cages can be assembled directly at molecular-materials interfaces from nanocrystalline Cu materials,³⁰⁻³² but optimizing CO electroreduction catalysts at a molecular level to attain both high specificity and activity remains a significant challenge. In this regard, Nature provides inspiration for CO catalysis in the form of CO dehydrogenase enzymes (CODHs),³⁴⁻³⁸ which drive efficient CO catalysis through self-assembly of systematically tunable building blocks. Specifically, we show that metalloporphyrins bearing thiol-terminated organic struts form synthetic cavities of predictable sizes and metal-metal distances upon cofacial interactions with Cu electrodes, enabling electrochemical CO reduction with high selectivity and activity for C2 products (FIGS. 1A and 1B). In addition to introducing interfacial supramolecular chemistry as a versatile design principle for an important catalytic carbon fixation process, this work provides a starting point for merging molecular and materials catalyst components through supramolecular self-assembly for a broader range of chemical transformations and applications.

Applications of the present invention include, but are not limited to:

1. Electrocatalytic Fuel Generation

-   -   1) CO/CO₂ reduction into fuels (CO (from CO₂), CH₄ (methane),         CH₃OH (methanol), HCOH (formaldehyde), C₂H₅OH (ethanol), CH₃COOH         (acetate or acetic acid), C₂H₄ (ethylene), C₂H₆ (ethane) and         other value-added carbon-based products (≥C₂ product)     -   2) Water electrolysis for H₂ and O₂ generation (proton/water         electroreduction into H₂ and water electrooxidation into O₂)     -   3) Electroreduction of N₂ into NH₃ or other N-containing         products     -   4) Electroreduction and electrooxidation of abundant biomass or         bio-derived resources into high value fuels or chemicals

2. Electrocatalytic Fuel Consumption for Fuel Cells

-   -   1) Electrocatalytic carbon-based fuel oxidation (e.g. methanol         oxidation (DMFC), ethanol oxidation (DEFC),         methane/ethylene/ethane oxidation)     -   2) Electrocatalytic H₂ oxidation for H₂-based fuel cell (e.g.         PEMFC)     -   3) Electrocatalytic O₂ reduction for fuel cell     -   4) Electrocatalytic NH₃ oxidation for potential fuel cell

3. Electrocatalytic Sensing or Pollutant Removal

-   -   1) Electrocatalytic nitrate or nitrite reduction     -   2) Electrocatalytic phosphate or phosphite reduction     -   3) Electrocatalytic organic pollutant sensing and removal     -   4) Electrocatalytic glucose sensing for blood sugar detection     -   5) Electrochemical toxic gas (hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide,         phosphene) sensor     -   6) Electrochemical H₂O₂ sensor

4. Advanced Chemical Transformation using Electrochemical Approach

-   -   1) Electrocatalytic C—H oxidation (aliphatic C—H oxidation and         aromatic C—H oxidation)     -   2) Electrocatalytic halogenation     -   3) Electrocatalytic selective alcohol oxidation and selective         ketone/aldehyde/carboxylic acid reduction     -   4) Electrocatalytic selective hydrogenation     -   5) Electrocatalytic alkene oxidation     -   6) Electrocatalytic oxidation of N,S containing compounds (e.g.         amines and thiols)     -   7) Electrocatalytic reduction of aromatic compounds into         saturated rings     -   8) Electrocatalytic reduction of nitriles     -   9) Electrocatalytic reduction of imines and Schiff bases     -   10) Electrocatalytic oxidation of hydrazines into azo compounds         or reduction of azo compounds into hydrazines

In some embodiments, the composition of the present composition comprises A and B, wherein A is one or more inorganic materials and B is a porous molecule. A and B interact to form one or more cages for catalysis, so A is normally what people use as electrocatalysts, and B is any molecule that can form a cage on top.

TABLE 1 Particular embodiments of A. Metals Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal oxides chalco- nitrides phosphides arsenides genides (sulfides, selenides, and/or tellurides) Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed metals metal metal metal metal metal (including oxides chalco- nitrides phosphides arsenides alloys genides thereof) Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal halides carbides silicides borides oxyhalide borate Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Metal Metal metal metal metal metal oxynitride carbonate halides carbides silicides borides Metal Metal Carbon Sulfur Silicon Metal phosphate hydroxide nitride hydrides Metal Metal Silicon Silicon Doped Mixed silicate oxyhy- carbide carbon metal droxide hydrides *Mixed metal oxide is A_(x)B_(y)O_(z) (A, B are metals), or more than two metals. For example, bismuth vanadate falls into this category

In some embodiments, the metal is a transition metal.

In some embodiments, B is any molecule that can bind to A to form one or more cages through chemical or physical interactions (e.g. covalent bonding, hydrogen bonding, Van der Waals interaction, electrostatic interaction).

In some embodiments, both A and B are catalysts.

Conversion of carbon monoxide (CO), a major one-carbon product of carbon dioxide (CO₂) reduction, into value-added multicarbon species is a challenge to addressing global energy demands and climate change. Here we report a modular synthetic approach for aqueous electrochemical CO reduction to carbon-carbon coupled products via self-assembly of supramolecular cages at molecular-materials interfaces. Heterobimetallic cavities formed by face-to-face coordination of thiol-terminated metalloporphyrins to copper electrodes through varying organic struts convert CO to C2 products with high Faradaic efficiency (FE=83% total with 57% to ethanol) and current density (1.34 mA/cm²) at a potential of −0.40 V vs RHE. The cage-functionalized electrodes offer an order of magnitude improvement in both selectivity and activity for electrocatalytic carbon fixation compared to parent copper surfaces or copper functionalized with porphyrins in an edge-on orientation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of Porphyrin Caps for Formation of Supramolecular Cages at Molecule-Materials Interfaces.

The design and synthesis of cage-forming porphyrin caps and their assembly onto metal surfaces are depicted in FIG. 1A. We reasoned that α, α, α, α-atropisomers inspired by the classic picket-fence porphyrin model for hemoglobin oxygen transport³⁹ would provide a rigid platform to promote a face-to-face arrangement between the porphyrin molecule and metal surface, where thiol-terminated legs built off of the porphyrin scaffold at the ortho positions of the 5,10,15,20 aryl groups serve as multidentate connecting points to bind to the copper electrode material. Self-assembly at the molecular-materials interface would form a cage in which the porphyrin sits like a molecular table on top of the metal surface floor (FIG. 1A). Accordingly, systematic variation of linkers and metals in both the molecular and materials components of this supramolecular assembly provide an opportunity to explore and optimize catalytic structures and properties. This hybrid approach, where interfacial supramolecular architectures are derived from both molecular and materials building blocks, is complementary to discrete molecular organic cages ⁴⁰⁻⁴⁴ as well as extended porous materials bearing catalytic porphyrin units.^(23,45-50)

A general route to the syntheses of α, α, α, α-porphyrins and their metallated derivatives is shown in Scheme 1A. Scheme 1B depicts the molecular structures and nomenclatures of the synthesized (metallo)porphyrins along with two porphyrin analogs employed as controls.^(51,52) In particular, we synthesized an isostructural α, α, α, α-porphyrin with legs that lack terminal thiol pendants for surface binding, as well as a para-substituted tetrathiol porphyrin congener designed to favor edge-on rather than face-to-face interactions with the metal surface. Full synthetic details are given in Supporting Information.

To generate hybrid supramolecular cages at the molecular-materials interface, metallic copper surfaces were treated with thiol porphyrins generated from in situ deprotection of thioacetate counterparts (FIG. 2A).⁵³ Well-defined metallic Cu films prepared by e-beam evaporation were utilized as a model substrate for surface characterization⁵⁴. The successful attachment of the porphyrins to the Cu surface was first evidenced by high-resolution N1s and S2p X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The N1s peak is consistent with a previously reported spectrum assigned to a porphyrin monolayer, confirming the existence of porphyrins on the surface (FIG. 2B).⁵⁵⁻⁵⁶ The S2p region exhibits two distinct peaks at around ˜161-164 eV and ˜167-169 eV, corresponding to the thiolate and sulfonate species, respectively (FIG. 2C).⁵⁴ The presence of thiolate species on the surface corroborates possible porphyrin attachment via formation of Cu—S bonds, whereas the sulfonate peaks might be derived from partial thiolate oxidation after air exposure due to the high oxygen permeability of the void spaces in the porphyrin cages. The functionalized Cu surface also shows a slightly wider Cu 2p peak but with lower signal at ˜933 eV compared to the unfunctionalized Cu control surface (FIGS. 7A-B), which can be reasoned by the surface-attached porphyrin partially oxidizing Cu surface via Cu—S bond formation. Complementary external reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) measurements provide addition support for porphyrin attachment (FIG. 8).

Two potential limiting configurations for porphyrin coordination to the Cu surface may be envisioned, which are anticipated to lead to disparate catalytic performances. In one possible configuration, the porphyrin coordinates with the Cu surface via Cu—S interactions to form a cage architecture where the porphyrin face is elevated above the surface. Another possibility is for the porphyrin face to lie directly on the Cu surface through van der Waals interactions, blocking potential access of reactants to the surface. To investigate these possible binding modes, we employed electrochemical underpotential deposition (UPD) studies, in which the measured monolayer thickness of a metal-deposited guest is highly indicative of the number of surface substrate sites that are electrochemically accessible.⁵⁷ Porphyrins that orient face-down and promote direct interactions with the Cu surface would block the electrode and result in fewer Cu sites able to be accessed by UPD. In contrast, porphyrins that orient with legs down and favor coordination through Cu—S bonds to create porous cages would leave more Cu sites accessible to the electrolyte solution, resulting in UPD peak areas that are comparable to control Cu surfaces.

To this end, we probed accessible Cu sites by the UPD of lead (Pb) on Cu surfaces in the presence of chloride anions. The standard Cu surfaces (100 nm Cu on Si) show a pair of underpotential deposition and dissolution peaks in the range of −0.05 V to −0.25 V vs standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) (FIG. 2D).⁵⁸ Treating the Cu surfaces with H₂-PAA porphyrins bearing terminal alkene groups show voltammograms that exhibit smaller peak areas with retained peak shapes and potentials, likely due to the inability of the alkenes to form stable interactions with the Cu surface and possible porphyrin-Cu stacking behavior, both of which would impede Pb deposition. In contrast, the Cu surfaces functionalized with H₂PC₂SH porphyrins bearing terminal thiol groups exhibit almost identical peak areas to control Cu (FIG. 2D), showing that porphyrins interacting in this mode do not restrict access to the Cu electrode. Interestingly, the thiol-porphyrin-functionalized Cu surfaces also exhibit a distinct peak shift to more positive potentials, indicating more facile Pb deposition with this molecular attachment (FIG. 2D). Taken together, the data suggest that the local electronic structure of the Cu surface has been altered after porphyrin binding, likely due to the partial oxidation of the surface as a result of the formation of Cu—S bonds. The UPD results also imply a high coverage of the porphyrin molecules on the Cu surface since no UPD current is observed at the potential characteristic for unfunctionalized Cu surfaces. The observations from UPD and XPS studies both support the creation of porphyrin cages on a sterically accessible metallic Cu surface via designed Cu—S interactions.

Electrocatalytic CO Reduction with Hybrid Supramolecular Porphyrin Cages Formed on Copper. With these initial hybrid systems in hand, we evaluated their activity for electrocatalytic CO reduction compared to unfunctionalized Cu foils (FIGS. 3A-3F). To compare catalytic activity and selectivity, with particular interest in C—C coupled products, controlled potential electrolysis (CPE) measurements at various potentials were carried out in CO-saturated 0.1 M KOH (aq). The collected gas-phase products were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and the liquid-phase products were quantified by ¹H-NMR (FIG. 9). Three major C2 products derived from C—C bond formation—acetate, ethanol and ethylene—were detected for all electrodes in the potential range of −0.45 V to −0.65 V vs reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE). The faradaic efficiencies (FEs) and specific current densities for each product are shown for direct comparison (FIGS. 3A-3F). As expected, Cu foil alone exhibits low basal activity, with <15% total FE towards CO reduction at relatively low overpotentials (<−0.6 V vs RHE) (FIGS. 3A-3D and FIGS. 10A and 10B) and an appreciable amount of ethylene as the major product of CO reduction beyond −0.6 V vs RHE, consistent with previous reports (FIGS. 3E and 3F).^(30,33)

We next evaluated the effects of porphyrin functionalization as well as cage size on CO reduction to C—C coupled products by systematically varying the linker lengths in the spacer region (H2PC_(n)SH, n=1-4). Interestingly, all Cu foils with surface-tethered porphyrins exhibit significantly higher propensities for oxygenate formation (FIGS. 4A-4B). Specifically, an optimal CO reduction selectivity towards oxygenate production was obtained with the two-carbon linker at a potential of −0.55 V vs RHE (FIG. 4B). Further expanding the cage size (n=3, 4) results in a notable decrease in the FEs towards C₂ oxygenates. We then compared the activity and selectivity of the optimized Cu—H₂PC₂SH electrode with bare Cu foil under different potentials, and the results show significantly higher FEs and more positive onset potentials for C₂ oxygenate formation. More negative applied potentials greatly influence the observed FEs, resulting in reduced amounts of acetate and ethanol production while boosting undesired competitive hydrogen evolution. In contrast, almost identical FEs and current densities were observed on Cu foil and Cu—H₂PC₂SH electrodes for the production of ethylene (FIGS. 3E and 3F), suggesting that the surface-tethered porphyrin cages affect the reduction pathways toward C2 oxygenate products but not the reduction pathway to this C2 hydrocarbon.

To further probe the nature of the observed enhancements in CO selectivity enabled by supramolecular formation of porphyrin cages on Cu surfaces, we designed a series of control molecules to investigate the roles of these surface-tethered porphyrin caps. Cu surfaces functionalized with simple monothiol additives such as 1-dodecanethiol (C₁₂SH), which support conventional self-assembled monolayers (SAMs)⁵⁴, or with 3-mercapto-N-phenylpropanamide (3-MPPA), which mimics a single linker arm in H₂PC₂SH porphyrins with a pendant amide, were first utilized as thiolate analogs for comparison. The Cu—C₁₂SH electrode exhibits dramatically lowered current densities compared to Cu—H₂PC₂SH, with hydrogen (H₂) as the only major product generated at a potential of −0.55 V vs RHE (FIGS. 5A and 11). We speculate that this low activity for CO reduction is likely the result of the large energy barrier for diffusing polar CO molecules into the densely packed non-polar SAMs. Along the same lines, Cu-3-MPPA exhibits lower overall current densities compared to Cu-tethered thiolporphyrins and a characteristic CPE curve with an initial drop followed by a gradual recovery in current density similar to Cu—H₂PC₂SH electrode (FIGS. 5A and 11). However, the selectivity for this MPPA system towards CO reduction is low, reaching only a ˜10% total FE for carbon products (FIG. 3A). Moreover, the para-functionalized porphyrin analog (Cu—H₂-p-PC₂SH) also exhibits significantly lower selectivity towards CO reduction compared to the table-like ortho analog Cu—H₂-o-PC₂SH (FIG. 5A). We speculate that the para porphyrins having a flat architecture would either pack by standing edge-on the Cu surfaces via one or two thiolate linkages, or lie flat on the surface with direct face-to-face stacking; in either case, these porphyrins are incapable of forming catalytic cages and serve to block accessible Cu sites, thereby lowering electrocatalytic activity and CO selectivity. Finally, the Cu-H₂PAA system bearing terminal alkenes that do not strongly bind copper, mentioned above for UPD studies, exhibits a similar product distribution to bare Cu surfaces (FIG. 5A) and reduced surface access as measured by UPD (FIG. 2D).

The foregoing results establish that the supramolecular cavity created by the rigid table-like porphyrin scaffold plays a central role in enhancing the selectivity for electrochemical CO reduction to value-added C2 products and over competing water reduction, whereas traditional architectures for molecular functionalization of surfaces through metal-thiol interactions are not beneficial due to the lack of accessible sites on the Cu electrodes. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations on a Cu(100) surface point to a tentative mechanistic proposal involving a ketene intermediate,^(59,60) which we speculate may be tuned through hydrogen-bond interactions with the porphyrin cap (FIG. 5B and Table 2). Such interactions could rationalize the observed differences in selectivity for CO reduction observed for varying cage sizes, but does not rule out other plausible mechanistic possibilities and further studies must be pursued to address this open question.

The stability of the porphyrin cages on the Cu surfaces was further investigated by UPD and XPS studies (FIGS. 12A-12F). Cu—H₂PC₂SH electrode shows a consistent positive shift of the UPD peak by ˜14 mV compared to the unfunctionalized control Cu electrode. This positive shift is retained after electrolysis, suggesting the persistence of the porphyrin cages on Cu surfaces under CO electroreduction conditions (FIGS. 12A and 12B). XPS measurements reveal slight decreases of N 1 s and S 2p XPS signals and an increase of Cu 2p XPS signal after electrolysis, indicating some loss of weakly-bound porphyrin cages during electrocatalysis (FIGS. 12C-12E), but the retained N 1 s and S 2p peaks still suggest the relatively high stability of the porphyrin cages for CO reduction.

Heterobimetallic Supramolecular Porphyrin Cages for Improved CO Reduction Reactivity. In addition to enforcing a rigid cage to maintain surface accessibility as well as orient hydrogen-bond pendants to influence reaction selectivity, the porphyrin caps also enable facile introduction and tuning of a second metal site in proximity to the metal electrode center. We anticipated that a second type of metal center has the potential not only to participate as a catalytically active site but also to contribute as a synergistic cofactor to increase local CO concentrations and/or tune the electronic structure of the metal surface for improved CO reduction activity. Indeed, metalloporphyrins have been explored widely in homogeneous catalysis.^(14,19,24,61-64) To this end, we screened a series of metals inserted into the two-carbon-linker porphyrin caps (e.g., Fe, Ni, Zn) and observed that the introduction of Fe centers in the porphyrins increases the preference for ethanol production while decreasing the relative ratio of acetate at all potentials applied (FIGS. 6A, 6B and 13A-13C). An optimal ethanol FE of ˜52% is obtained on a Cu—FePC₂SH electrode at a potential of −0.50 V vs RHE (FIG. 6B) with good long-term stability over continuous CO reduction electrocatalysis (FIGS. 14A and 14B), only losing ca. 10% FE for C2 products over a 24 h period. As expected, functionalization with the redox-inert Zn porphyrin shows comparable product selectivity to that of free-base porphyrins. In contrast, insertion of Ni into porphyrin cap shifts product distributions toward hydrogen formation and a higher FE for ethylene, which may likely be due to the high intrinsic hydrogenation capability of the Ni porphyrins (FIG. 6A).^(65,66)

With the observation of varying product distributions with different metal substitutions into the porphyrin cap, we next sought to probe aspects of how the Fe derivative promotes higher levels of ethanol production. In this context, previous studies have identified acetaldehyde as a key intermediate for electrochemical CO reduction into ethanol in alkaline media⁶⁷. We thus utilized acetaldehyde as a model substrate for studying the role of Fe in this catalytic process. To this end, the electrocatalytic reductions of acetaldehyde on bare Cu foil, Cu—H₂PC₂SH , and Cu—FePC₂SH electrodes were examined in 0.1 M KOH (aq) with the addition of 10 mM acetaldehyde under Ar atmosphere. The Cu—FePC₂SH electrode shows slightly higher activity towards acetaldehyde reduction, with a positive shift in the polarization curves (FIGS. 15A-15C) and much higher FEs towards ethanol production than bare Cu surfaces or Cu functionalized with free-base porphyrin caps (FIG. 6C). In fact, Fe porphyrins alone deposited on glassy carbon electrodes show moderate activity toward acetaldehyde reduction with a reasonable current density within the potential range for CO reduction (FIGS. 15A-15C), which is consistent with previous findings that Fe porphyrins can be effectively used as catalysts for the hydrogenation of various aldehydes and ketones.⁶⁸ As such, we propose that Fe porphyrins might participate in reduction of acetaldehyde intermediates, which in turn favors increased ethanol production in electrochemical CO reduction. Indeed, the Tafel plot of the specific ethanol current densities on Cu—FePC₂SH electrodes shows a much earlier onset potential but exhibits a larger Tafel slope of 174 mV/dec (FIG. 6D). This deviation from the Tafel slopes of 126 and 127 mV/dec observed on Cu foil and on Cu—H₂PC₂SH electrodes, respectively, supports the participation of Fe porphyrins in the rate-determining step of the ethanol production pathway, with observation of a larger Tafel slope for the Fe—Cu bimetallic system compared to Cu-only congeners resulting from inefficiencies in charge transfer between the Fe porphyrin and Cu surface. Evidence for this notion is provided by the larger charge transfer resistance under CO atmosphere compared to Ar (FIGS. 16A and 16B), and future efforts will aim to increase charge transfer efficiency.

Finally, we sought to optimize the CO reduction activity of these hybrid heterobimetallic systems, using the Cu—FePC₂SH porphyrin catalyst showing the best product selectivity toward the liquid fuel ethanol as a starting point. Previous work highlights the significance of exposed Cu facets for electrochemical CO₂ or CO reductions^(26,60,69-74) where Cu(100) or other high-energy facets are more active than the thermodynamically more stable Cu(111) surfaces and can enhance formation of CO dimerized products.^(26,60,71,73,75,76) We employed electrodeposition of Cu on glassy carbon in chloride-containing aqueous CuSO₄ electrolyte as a general and facile way of controlling the exposed facets of the Cu substrates.⁷⁷⁻⁷⁸ The supramolecular catalyst systems formed by combination of the FePC₂SH porphyrin caps with electrodeposited Cu exhibit markedly higher specific current densities at low overpotentials (FIG. 6F). The CO reduction product distribution is relatively similar to that of Fe porphyrin cages on Cu foils, but with slightly lower FEs for hydrogen production (FIG. 6E). The higher current densities allow for quantitative analyses of the products at even lower overpotentials where competitive hydrogen evolution is insignificant. Specifically, at −0.4 V vs RHE, the catalyst achieves a total FE of 83% towards CO reduction into C₂ products, with 57% FE for ethanol and 24% FE for acetate at a current density of 1.34 mA/cm² (FIG. 6E).

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, we have presented a supramolecular strategy for electrocatalytic carbon fixation to multicarbon products through the self-assembly of synthetic cages at molecular-materials interfaces. Porphyrin capping units with directional legs terminated by thiol ligands form face-to-face cavities upon binding copper electrodes that leave surface sites electrochemically accessible. Varying linker lengths as well as metal substitutions in the porphyrin core provide versatile molecular handles for tuning selectivity and activity for electrochemical CO reduction to carbon-carbon coupled products. The heterobimetallic molecular-materials catalyzed formed by assembly of the C2-linked Fe porphyrin derivative on Cu achieves up to 83% FE for CO reduction into C2 products, with up to 57% ethanol and 24% acetate generated at −0.4 V vs RHE and a current density of 1.34 mA/cm². These values represent an order of magnitude improvement over unfunctionalized copper electrodes. Further experiments suggest that the Fe center can aid in cooperative reduction of potential acetaldehyde intermediates. Moreover, control analogs that lack thiol binding groups as well as positional isomers favoring edge-on binding or direct Van der Waals stacking exhibit reduced surface access and negligible CO over proton reduction selectivity, pointing to a critical role for the three-dimensional pocket in catalysis. In addition to establishing a unique electrochemical platform for reducing CO to value-added C₂ oxygenates, this work provides a starting point for the design of supramolecular architectures at molecular-materials interfaces for a broader range of chemical transformations and applications of interest.

The following documents are attached to this Provisional Application, and are incorporated herein by reference as if fully set out in their entirety.

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Supramolecular porphyrin cages assembled at molecular-materials interfaces for electrocatalytic CO reduction.

Experimental Section

1. Synthesis and Materials

α,α,α,α,-Tetrakis-aminophenylporphyrin and 3-mercapto-N-phenylpropanamide were synthesized according to the published literatures¹⁻³. Tetrakis-p-aminophenylporphyrin was purchased from Frontier Scientific. Graphite rod (>99.9995%), Cu foil (99.99%, 1 mm thickness) and glassy carbon rod (1 mm diameter) was purchased from Alfa Aesar. De-ionized water was from a Millipore Autopure system. Carbon monoxide (4.5 UHP) and Argon (5.0 UHP) gas were purchased from Praxair. All other chemicals were purchased from Sigma Aldrich. All reagents were of analytical grade and used without further purification.

2. Instrumentation

¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR spectra were collected in CDCl3 (Cambridge Isotope Laboratories, Cambridge, Mass.) at 25° C. on Bruker AVB-400 with ¹³C operating frequencies of 101 MHz at the College of Chemistry NMR Facility at the University of California, Berkeley. All chemical shifts are reported in the standard notation of parts per million relative to residual solvent peak at 7.26 ppm (CDCl₃) and as an internal reference⁴. Splitting patterns are indicated as follows: br, broad; s, singlet; d, doublet; t, triplet; m, multiplet; dd, doublet of doublets. ¹H NMR spectra of the liquid-phase CO reduction production were analyzed at 25° C. on Bruker AV-500. A 0.5-ml sample of the liquid was mixed with 0.1 ml D₂O and 1.67 parts per million dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as the internal standard. Electrospray mass spectral analyses were carried out using a LC-MS (Agilent Technology 6130, Quadrupole LC/MS). High resolution mass spectral analyses (ESI-MS) were carried out at the College of Chemistry Mass Spectrometry Facility at the University of California, Berkeley. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy was performed using an ultra-high vacuum (UHV) PHI 5400 XPS system with a non-monochromatic Mg X-ray source (Kα=1253.6 eV) operated at 350 W power. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was acquired on a Thermo Scientific Nicolet 6700 FTIR spectrometer. E-beam evaporation was carried out in SEC-600/SE-600 High Vacuum Deposition Systems from CHA industries.

3. General Procedures for the Synthesis of H₂PC_(n)SAc (n=1-4) and MPC₂SAc

0.1 mmol a,a,a,a,-Tetrakis-aminophenylporphyrin (0.075 g) was dissolved in dry THF (10 mL) and 12 eq. diethylaniline (214 μl) was added. N₂ was flushed for 10 min and the vessel was plunged in an ice-bath until the temperature of the solution reached 0° C. (15 min). 8 equiv. bromoacetylbromide (0.88 mmol, 77 μL) in solution in dichloromethane (2 mL) were introduced dropwise over 30 s to the stirred mixture at 0° C. After stirring for 30 min at 0° C., 20 equiv. potassium thioacetate (253 mg) was added, and the reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for another 4 hours. The solvent was then removed under reduced pressure, and the product was purified by flash column chromatography (silica gel, dichloromethane/ethyl acetate). 3-bromopropionyl bromide, 4-chlorobutyryl chloride and 5-chlorovaleroyl chloride were utilized for synthesizing H₂PC₂SAc, H₂PC₃SAc and H₂PC₄SAc respectively. The stirring procedure in the H₂PC₃SAc and H₂PC₄SAc synthesis was replaced by stirring for 4 hours at 25° C. Metallation of the H₂PC₂SAc (M=Fe, Ni, Zn) was carried out according to published procedures.⁵ The para-functionalized porphyrin analog (H₂-p-PC₂SAc) was synthesized with identical procedure to the general procedure using tetrakis-p-aminophenylporphyrin as the precursor.

H₂PC₁SAc, Synthesized according to the general procedure. Purple solid; ¹H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.79 (s, 8H), 8.58 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 4H), 8.00 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 4H), 7.85 (td, J=8.0, 1.6 Hz, 4H), 7.64 (s, 4H), 7.54 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 4H), 2.73 (s, 8H), 0.74 (s, 12H), −2.64 (s, 2H); ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.12, 165.94, 138.18, 134.64, 131.83, 131.55, 129.94, 123.64, 121.82, 114.81, 77.39, 33.25, 28.77.; MS (HR-ESI) m/z cal'd C₆₀H₅₀N₈O₈S₄ [M+H]⁺ 1139.2731, found 1139.2746. The structure of H₂PC₁SAc is:

H₂PC₂SAc, Synthesized according to the general procedure. Purple solid; ¹H NMR (500 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.82 (s, 8H), 8.65 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 4H), 7.93 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 4H), 7.85 (td, J=8.0, 1.6 Hz, 4H), 7.53 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 4H), 7.13 (s, 4H), 2.55 (t, J=6.7 Hz,8H), 1.71 (t, J=6.7 Hz, 8H), 1.62 (s, 12H), −2.74 (s, 2H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 195.58, 168.89, 138.10, 135.07, 131.85, 131.35, 130.03, 123.53, 122.09, 115.09, 35.93, 29.97, 24.41.; MS (HR-ESI) m/z cal'd C₆₄H₅₇ N₈O₈S₄ [M+H]⁺ 1195.3339, found 1195.3331; Fe(PC₂SAc)Cl MS (HR-ESI) m/z cal'd C₆₄H₅₇N₈O₈S₄Fe [M−Cl]⁺ 1248.2453, found 1248.2468; NiPC₂SAc MS (HR-ESI) m/z cal'd C₆₄H₅₇N₈O₈S₄Ni [M+H]⁺ 1251.2536, found 1251.2531; ZnPC₂SAc MS (HR-ESI) m/z cal'd C₆₄H₅₇N₈O₈S₄Zn [M+H]⁺ 1257.2474, found 1257.2478.H₂PC₃SAc, Synthesized according to the general procedure. Purple solid; ¹H NMR (500 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.89 (s, 8H), 8.69 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 4H), 7.93 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 4H), 7.91-7.85 (m, 4H), 7.54 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 4H), 2.24 (t, J=7.7 Hz, 8H), 1.76 (s, 12H), 1.55 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 8H), 1.44 (m, 8H), −2.70 (s, 2H); ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 195.11, 170.15, 138.15, 135.36, 131.96, 131.49, 129.98, 123.49, 122.18, 115.33, 35.70, 30.09, 27.76, 25.02.; MS (HR-ESI) m/z cal'd C₆₈H₆₇N₈O₈S₄ [M+H]⁺ 1251.3965, found 1251.3969. The structure of H₂PC₂SAc is:

H₂PC₃SAc, Synthesized according to the general procedure. Purple solid; 1 H NMR (500 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.89 (s, 8H), 8.69 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 4H), 7.93 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 4H), 7.91-7.85 (m, 4H), 7.54 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 4H), 2.24 (t, J=7.7 Hz, 8H), 1.76 (s, 12H), 1.55 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 8H), 1.44 (m, 8H), −2.70 (s, 2H); 13 C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 195.11, 170.15, 138.15, 135.36, 131.96, 131.49, 129.98, 123.49, 122.18, 115.33, 35.70, 30.09, 27.76, 25.02.; MS (HR-ESI) m/z cal'd C₆₈H₆₇N₈O₈S₄ [M+H]⁺ 1251.3965, found 1251.3969. The structure of H₂PC₃SAc is:

H₂PC₄SAc, Synthesized according to the general procedure. Purple solid; ¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.88 (s, 8H), 8.71 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 4H), 7.92 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 4H), 7.90-7.84 (m, 4H), 7.52 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 4H), 7.15 (s, 4H), 2.17 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 8H), 2.04 (s, 12H), 1.44 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 8H), 1.21 (dd, J=10.2, 5.2 Hz, 8H), 1.00 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 8H); ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 195.46, 170.45, 138.23, 135.32, 131.83, 131.11, 130.02, 123.35, 121.93, 115.32, 36.15, 30.43, 28.45, 28.10, 23.82; MS (HR-ESI) m/z cal'd C₇₂H₇₅N₈O₈S₄ [M+H]⁺ 1307.4591, found 1307.4603. The structure of H₂PC₄SAc is:

4. Procedures for Electrode and Electrolyte Preparation

Cu functionalization: Cu foil was first sonicated in 0.5 M sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) aqueous solution for 2 minutes and then sonicated in 0.1 M H₂SO₄ methanol solution for another 2 minutes. Then, the Cu foil was washed thoroughly with methanol and dried in inert atmosphere. After dried, the Cu foil was immersed in ˜5 ml anhydrous N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) containing 1 mg deprotected MPC_(n)SAc molecule and 0.3 mg sodium borohydride (NaBH₄) (The deprotection was performed by hydrolysis of MPC_(n)SAc in ammonia methanol/chloroform mixed solution (volume ratio=1/5) at room temperature). The porphyrin solution was constantly stirred under vacuum for 12 hours. After functionalization, the Cu foil was washed repetitively with dichloromethane to get rid of the unbound porphyrin molecules. The washed Cu foil was further heated in N₂ at 60° C. for 30 min to enhance the stability of the porphyrin molecule on the Cu surface. The Cu foil was ready for use after cooled to room temperature.

Electrodeposition of Cu: Glassy carbon (GC) rod was cleaned by sonication in water, acetone and methanol respectively. Electrodeposition of Cu was carried out in a two-electrode configuration under a constant current density of 10 mA/cm² for 30 min in an aqueous solution of 0.1 M sodium chloride (NaCl, >99.9%) with 10 mM copper sulfate (CuSO₄, from copper sulfate pentahydrate, 99.999% trace metals basis). The GC rod was used as working electrode and the graphite rod was used as counter electrode. After electrodeposition, the Cu-coated glassy carbon was immediately transferred to the porphyrin DMF solution in inert atmosphere for functionalization. The functionlization procedure was identical to that on Cu foil.

E-beam evaporation of 100 nm Cu on silicon wafer: A 4-inch Si wafer was coated first with 5 nm Cr layer, followed by 100 nm Cu with 0.4 Angstrom/sec deposition rate. The coating was performed at a high vacuum of ˜5×10⁻⁷ torr. After e-beam evaporation, the wafer was immediately transferred to a N₂-filled glovebox for storage. The Cu-coated Si wafer was cut in the glovebox and then subject to the standard functionalization procedure.

Electrolyte preparation: The electrolyte was prepared using high-purity potassium hydroxide (>99.97% trace metals basis) and Milli-Q water with a concentration of 0.1 M. The electrolyte was further electrolyzed under a constant current of 0.25 mA using two graphite rod as electrodes in a two-electrode configuration for 12 hours to remove the residual metal impurities. After electrolysis, the electrolyte was filtered and stored for use.

5. Electrochemical Measurements

CO reduction measurements: All the electrochemical experiments were carried out in our customized two-compartment cell. The two compartments were separated by an anion exchange membrane (Selemion AMV). The cathodic and anodic compartment holds 130 ml and 50 ml electrolyte respectively. Graphite was used as the counter electrode and Ag/AgCl (3 M KCl) was used as reference electrode. Cu foil subjected to the identical porphyrin functionalization procedure with NaBH₄ treatment, but without porphyrin addition, was used as the working electrode for the control group. The potential scale was converted to the reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) scale by E (V vs RHE)=E (V vs Ag/AgCl )+0.210 V+0.0591*pH. Prior to CO measurement, the electrolyte was saturated with CO for at least 30 minutes under stirring conditions. The CO pressure was then increased to 1.2 atm and the cell was sealed to maintain positive pressure of CO. Controlled potential electrolysis under different potentials was carried out for product analysis. All electrochemical measurements were iR-compensated.

Underpotential deposition: The underpotential deposition was carried out in a three electrode configuration according to previously reported conditions⁶. 0.01 M perchloric acid (HClO₄)+0.5 mM lead perchlorate (Pb(ClO₄)₂)+0.5 mM hydrochloric acid (HCl ) was used as electrolyte, Ag/AgCl electrode was used as the reference electrode and ˜1 cm² 100 nm Cu/Si wafer was used as working electrode. The two-compartment cell was used in order to prevent disturbance from the oxidized species generated on the counter electrode. The cell was purged with Ar for 30 minutes prior to the measurement to remove the residual O₂ in the electrolyte. The cyclic voltametry curves were taken at a scan rate of 10 mV/s.

Other electrochemical measurements: Acetaldehyde reduction was carried out in the same two-compartment cell under Ar atmosphere with 0.1 M KOH+10 mM or 50 mM acetaldehyde as electrolyte. For measurement on the activity of iron porphyrin alone, ˜1 mg FePC₂SAc dropdried onto a glassy carbon electrode was used as working electrode. Since the acetaldehyde can be quickly decomposed in alkaline electrolytes, the NMR analysis was performed immediately after the controlled potential electrolysis. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was measured in the frequency range of 1 Hz-1M Hz, and the final spectroscopy was fitted into the Nyquist plot.

6. Characterization Details

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS): Survey XPS spectra were obtained with analyzer pass energy of 178.95 eV and step size of 1 eV. High resolution spectra were obtained with analyzer pass energy of 35.75 eV and 0.1 eV energy steps. The binding energy scale was corrected setting C 1 s peak in 284.6 eV.

External reflection Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy: The incident IR beam was reflected off the sample substrate at the incident angle of 60 degrees, and the spectra were acquired with a resolution of 1 cm⁻¹. Absorption due to air (CO₂ and water vapor) was subtracted off.

Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations: The calculations in current study have been performed using the Vienna Ab-initio Simulation Pakage (VASP)^(7,8)with plane wave basis set. We have used the projector-augmented-wave method (PAW)^(9,10) in conjunction with Generalized Gradient Approximation (GGA) and Perdew-Burke-Ernzerh (PBE)¹¹ exchange correlation functional. The Brillouin zone was sampled using 8×8×8 and 1×1×1 (namely Gamma point) for bulk and surface calculations, respectively. A cutoff energy of 300 eV is employed for the plane-wave expansion. A total energy convergence better than 10⁻⁴ eV was reached and the interatomic forces are minimized up to 0.05 eV/Å for structural relaxation calculations.

In bulk calculations, both the cell dimensions and atomic positions were fully relaxed during the optimization. The calculated lattice constant of cubic Cu cell is 3.616 Å, which is consistent with 3.615 Å in experiment. The slab model was built by adding a vacuum region of 15 Å to prevent the slab from interacting with its periodic images in the surface normal direction. The adsorption calculations were calculated on a p(5×5) supercell of Cu(100) surface. As shown in FIGS. 13A-13C, the slab model with three atom layers contains 150 atoms, the two topmost layers were allowed to relax and the bottom one layer was fixed to its equilibrium position as in bulk. The adsorption energy per molecule was calculated from the relation

E _(ads) =E _(surf+mol)−(E _(surf) +E _(mol))

where E_(ads+mol) is the total energy of adsorbate-substrate system, E_(surf) is the energy of pure slab model (Cu(100) and pre-adsorbed Cu(100) porphyrin) and E_(mol) is the energy of the isolated molecular (C═C═O). So the negative adsorption energy indicates an exothermic process.

TABLE 2 Comparison of adsorption energy of ketene intermediates on Cu (100) and on Cu(100)—H₂PC₁SH Cu (100) Cu(100)—H₂PC₁SH* E_(ads) (ketene) −0.85 eV −1.21 eV *Porphyrin with C1 linker was used as a model for calculation to demonstrate the concept. The distance and energy might change in the presence of electric field, but calculation involving electric field in the surface-tethered porphyrin systems takes a tremendous amount of time to finish.

NMR spectra of the porphyrins were determined.

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What is claimed is:
 1. A composition comprising a heterostructure capable of electrochemical CO reduction to a carbon-carbon product, comprising an inorganic material and a porous molecule.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the inorganic material is 2H or any metal, or halide thereof, or any inorganic material described in Table
 1. 3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the porous molecule is an organic molecule.
 4. The composition of claim 3, wherein the organic molecule is a porphyrin.
 5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the heterostructure comprises the following structure:

wherein (a) M is 2H or any metal, or halide thereof, or any inorganic material described in Table 1, and (b) n is any integer from (0 or 1) to
 20. 6. The composition of claim 5, wherein M is any transition metal.
 7. The composition of claim 5, wherein M is Sc, Ti, V. Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Ac, Rf, Db, Sg, Bh, or Hs, or a halide thereof.
 8. The composition of claim 7, wherein the halide is a fluoride, bromide or chloride.
 9. The composition of claim 5, wherein n is any integer from 0 (or 1) to
 10. 10. The composition of claim 1, wherein the heterostructure is capable of electrochemical CO reduction to a carbon-carbon product with one or more of the following properties: a Faradaic efficiency equal to or greater than 40%, a current density of equal to greater than 1.34 mA/cm²), and a potential of −0.40 V vs RHE.
 11. The composition of claim 10, wherein the heterostructure is capable of electrochemical CO reduction to a carbon-carbon product with a Faradaic efficiency equal to or greater than 40%, 50%, 60%, 60%, 70%, or 80%.
 12. The composition of claim 10, wherein the heterostructure is capable of electrochemical CO reduction to a carbon-carbon product with a current density of equal to greater than 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, or 1.3 mA/cm². 